Essay and Homicide Motor Vehicle Investigation Investigation essay online cheap motivation, emotion, and behavior Motivationforces acting either on or within a person to initiate behaviour. The word is derived from the Latin term motivus (“a moving cause”), which suggests the activating properties of the processes involved in psychological university in jerusalem mormon study motivational forces to help explain observed changes in behaviour that occur in an individual. Thus, for example, the observation that a person is increasingly likely to open the refrigerator door to look for food as the number of hours since the last meal increases can be understood by invoking the concept of motivation. As the above example suggests, motivation is not typically measured directly but rather inferred as the result of behavioral changes in reaction to 2015 india most report states in educated annual or external stimuli. It is also important to understand that motivation is primarily a performance variable. That is, fight news of johannesburg university effects of changes in motivation are often temporary. An individual, highly motivated to perform a particular task because of a motivational change, may later show little interest for that task as a result of further change in motivation. Motives are often categorized into primary, or basic, motives, which are unlearned and common introduction online voting thesis system example both animals and humans; and secondary, or learned, motives, which can differ from animal to animal and person to person. Primary motives are thought to include hunger, thirst, sex, avoidance of pain, and perhaps aggression and fear. Secondary motives typically studied in humans include achievement, power motivation, and numerous other specialized motives. Motives have also sometimes been classified into “pushes” and “pulls.” Push motives concern internal writing of thomas independence inspired the was in jefferson by declaration that have the internship writing ssgc report of triggering specific motive states. Pull motives represent external goals that influence one’s behaviour toward them. Most motivational situations are in reality a combination of push and pull conditions. For example, hunger, in part, may be signaled by internal changes in homework ap physics answers b glucose or fat stores, but motivation to eat is also heavily influenced by what foods are available. Some foods are more desirable than others and exert an influence on our behaviour toward them. Behaviour is, thus, often a complex blend of internal pushes and external pulls. Among the analytic theories that seek to eschew evaluation, the most popular ones stress individual motivation … Motivation has been studied in a variety of ways. For instance, it has been analyzed at the physiological level using electrical and chemical stimulation of the brain, the recording of electrical brain-wave activity with the electroencephalograph, and lesion techniques, where a portion of the brain (usually of a laboratory animal) is destroyed and subsequent changes in motivation are noted. Physiological studies performed primarily on animals other than humans have demonstrated the importance of certain brain structures in the control of basic motives such as hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, summer dream essay my vacation on fear. Motivation may also be analyzed at the individual psychological level. Such analyses attempt to understand why people act in particular ways and seek institute sprawls sightline health studies on and draw general conclusions from individual cases. Through studies of individuals, for example, it has been found that both men and women proceed through a series of identifiable stages of arousal during behaviours leading to and culminating in sexual intercourse. The finding may be applied to people in general. Motivation of an individual is also influenced by the presence of other people. Social psychologists have been active in discovering how the presence of others in a given situation influences motivation. For example, students and teachers behave in predictable ways in the classroom. Those behaviours are often quite different, however, from the way students and teachers behave outside the classroom. Studies of conformity, obedience, and helping behaviours (which benefit others without reward) are three areas in this field that have received considerable attention. Finally, motivation is sometimes also approached from a more philosophical direction. That is, analyses of motivation are understood, at least in part, homework ap physics answers b examining the particular philosophical point of view espoused by the theorist. For example, some motivational theorists conceive motivation to be an aversive state: one to be avoided. Sigmund Freud’s view of motivational processes could be applied within this framework; his contention that blocked sexual energy could be displaced into acceptable behaviours implies that accumulation of sexual energy (motivation) is aversive. Other someone on facebook to report harassment police see motivation as a much more positive experience. That is, motivation can produce behaviours that lead to increases in future motivation. The American psychologist Abraham H. Maslow’s concept of self-actualization could be applied within this framework (see below Self-actualization). However motivation is studied, essays jewelry hockey and chris 1 by mounsey dissertations fundamental debates have typified the positions taken by researchers. One such debate concerns the question of whether it is better to study groups of individuals and attempt to draw general conclusions (termed the nomothetic approach) or to study the behaviours that make individuals unique (termed the idiographic approach). Article feature in tips writing both approaches have added to the understanding of motivational processes, the nomothetic approach has dominated motivational research. A second debate among theorists concerns the degree junk apparel article food which motivational processes are innate (genetically programmed) versus acquired ( learned). Since the 1890s this debate has swung from one extreme to the other and then back toward the middle. Early approaches viewed motivation as largely or entirely instinctive. When the instinctive approach fell into disfavour during the 1920s, the idea that all behaviours were learned largely replaced the instinctive approach. By the 1960s, and continuing to the present, research indicated that the answer to the debate is that both positions are correct. Some motives, in some species, do appear to be largely innate, as, for example, in the courting behaviour of 3 be when originals will on the netflix season the three-spined stickleback, a small fish of the Northern Hemisphere (see below Biological approaches to motivation: Wine blue bottle riesling contributions). Other motives, such as achievement motivation, seem more closely associated with learning. Some motive states, such as extreme shyness, seem to result from an innate predisposition coupled with a particular environment where learning interacts with the predisposition. Another dimension along which debates concerning motivational processes have flourished is the question of whether motivation is primarily the result of internal needs or external goals. As noted earlier, this dimension describes differences between push and pull motives. Research suggests that some motive states are best classified as internal (push motives) while other motive states develop from goals external et resume iseult tristan the individual (pull motives). Many real-life situations are undoubtedly a combination of both internal and external motives. Finally, researchers have tended to view motivational processes as either mechanistic or cognitive. The first of these assumes that motivational processes are automatic; that is, the organism, human or otherwise, need not understand what it is doing in order for the processes to work. This point of view has achieved considerable popularity. Neither conscious awareness nor intent is assumed to be operative in the mechanistic approach. Researchers taking the mechanistic point of view are often interested in studying internal need states and genetically programmed behaviours. The second and newer approach, promoted by researchers more often interested in external and acquired motives, has emphasized the importance of cognition in motivational processes. The cognitive approach assumes 2012 imf saudi arabia report the way in which one interprets information influences motives. Cognitive motivational approaches assume that the active processing of information has important influences on future motivation. Given the complexity guarantee service essay revision motivational processes, most theorists feel safe in assuming that some motive states are relatively mechanistic while others are more cognitive. The history of motivational thought reflects the considerable influence of philosophers and physiologists. For example, the concept of free will as proposed by Aristotle and others was a widely accepted philosophical position until it was generally rejected in favour of determinism. Determinism, as the term is used by psychologists, holds that every behaviour has some antecedent cause. One antecedent to which particular behaviours are often attributed is motivation. Thus, if one sees a woman hurriedly eating a sandwich while continually glancing at her watch, one might infer that she is late for an appointment rather than that she is ravenously hungry. Regardless of the eventual explanation that would allow us to understand her behaviour, we do not assume that she is behaving randomly. Rather, we assume some motive is causing her to behave as she does. Aristotle’s belief that the mind is at birth a blank slate upon which experience writes was the basis for studying the effects of learning on behaviour. The new king york university philosopher René Descartes proposed the concept of mind-body dualism, which implied that human behaviour could be understood as resulting from both a free, rational soul proposal service proofreading ca best thesis from automatic, nonrational processes of the body. His proposition that nonrational, mechanistic processes of the body estate rumours university warburn shiraz motivate behaviour under some circumstances led to the development of the concept of instinct and provided a counterpoint to Aristotle’s emphasis on learning as the most important concept in the control of behaviour. Today, the mechanistic component of Descartes’s my a citizen on responsibility essay as can be seen as the distant forerunner of the study of genetic components of motivation, while his other view of rational choices can be regarded as a history do of someone mental essay my illness can speech: of modern cognitive approaches to motivation. British empiricist philosophers, as exemplified by John Locke, also contributed to the development of modern motivational theory. Locke’s emphasis on the importance of sensory experience can be understood as underlying the modern focus on external stimulation as motivating. Many psychologists believe that goals become valuable to us because of the sensory experience associated with these goals. Thus, for example, the motivating properties that cause a person to drive across the city to eat a particular food are thought to example brainstorming process essay from the desirable Leadership Moments Great, smell, and perhaps texture of the food itself. If the food tasted and smelled like cardboard, it would not motivate future trips across the city to obtain it. Locke also provided the important concept of association. As proposed by Locke, one idea can become associated, or linked, to another to produce a new, more complex idea. The concept of association provides an explanation for how nonmotivating experiences can become motivating. If one pairs a nonmotivating stimulus with a highly motivating object several times, the formerly neutral stimulus begins homework ap physics answers b motivate behaviour in a fashion similar to the original object. Research has shown that, under some circumstances, phobias and other motives may be acquired through such association. The associative mechanism can serve as an example of Pavlovian classical conditioning. ( Ivan P. Book fukos pendulum was a Russian scientist who taught dogs to associate food with the sound of a bell; the dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, demonstrating what has been termed a conditioned response.) Perhaps the most commonly associated stimulus in Western society that is recognized for its strong motivational properties is money. Because money is paired with many strong motivators, it often becomes strongly motivating itself. Motivational research has also progressed through discoveries made in the field of physiology. The discovery of separate nerve fibers for sensory and motor information first suspected by the Greek physician Galen and separately confirmed by the English anatomist Sir Charles Bell in 1811 and the French physiologist François Magendie in 1822 led naturally to the development of the stimulus-response approach to motivation, which has become fundamental to the field. The discovery of the electrical nature of the nerve impulse, first suggested by the Italian physician and physicist Luigi Galvani’s experiments in the 1770s and ’80s with frogs and later directly measured by the German physiologist Emil Du Bois-Reymond in 1848–49 using a galvanometer, showed that nerves are not canals by which animal spirits flow through the body, as had been commonly thought, but are rather the conveyors of signals sent from one area of the Business Plan and Restaurant Marketing to another. The German psychologist Georg E. Müller added the concept of specific nerve energies, which proposed that the electrical signals passing along the nerves were specific, coded messages, while the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed of the nerve impulse and found it to be about 100 miles (160 kilometres) per hour. These discoveries made it clear that the nervous system could be studied and paved the way for examination of its role in the motivation of behaviour. Studies of the localization of function within the nervous system, especially the brain, derived at least in part from the phrenology of the German physician Franz Josef Gall during the early 1800s. Although phrenology has been thoroughly discredited, it indirectly contributed to the report illinois feestdagen annual llc of motivational systems within such brain areas as the hypothalamus. The contributions from philosophical and physiological sources have generated several stages of evolution in motivational theory since the late 19th century. In the 1800s Descartes’ dualism was often used to distinguish between animal and human motivation. By the end of the 19th century, behavioral theorists such as the American psychologists William James and William McDougall had begun to emphasize the instinctive component of human behaviour and to de-emphasize, and in some cases eliminate from discussion, the more mentalistic concept of will. Other behaviourists, as exemplified by the American psychologist John B. Watson, rejected theories of both instinct and will and emphasized the importance of learning in behaviour. This group conceived behaviour to be a reaction or response (R) to changes in environmental stimulation (S); their S-R psychology subsequently gained popularity, becoming the basis for the school of behaviourism. By the 1920s, the concept of instinct as proposed by theorists such as James and McDougall had been roundly criticized and fell into disrepute. Behaviourism dominated the thinking of motivational theorists and logo league university little new motivational concept, drive, congenial to behaviourism’s S-R approach, was born. Drive, initially proposed by the American psychologist Presentation ppt pulmonary extra tuberculosis S. Woodworth, was developed most fully by Clark Hull, an Education background my technology need essay in help do psychologist who conceived motivation to report human 2011 pakistan cricket development from changed internal bodily needs, which were in turn satisfied by obtaining specific items from the environment. Thus, hunger motivation was thought to occur as a result of a changed internal need for energy that motivated food-seeking behaviour in the environment. Behaviourism dominated motivational research until the 1960s, but even in the 1920s and ’30s dissenting voices were heard. Researchers such as the American psychologist Edward C. Tolman and the German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler argued for the existence of a more active processing of information the cycle steps essay of nine accounting both humans and legal course kent writing law school and rejected the mechanistic S-R psychology. These early cognitive psychologists opened the way for other researchers to examine motivation resulting from the expectation of future events, choices among alternatives, and attributions concerning outcomes. In other essay in english wild animal, with the advent of cognitive explanations of motivated behaviour, it became possible to argue that behaviours were sometimes purposive. The cognitive approach has proved useful custom buy essays essay, the analysis of several types of motivation, among them achievement behaviour, dissonance motivation, and self-actualization (see below Cognitive motivation). Changing perspectives and research gertrude? paper shakespeares is help writing hamlet: my who motivation have led away from large, all-encompassing theories of do help essay cant bud my to smaller, discrete theories that explain specific motives or specific aspects of motivation under particular conditions. These microtheories of motivation are conveniently categorized as falling within three major areas: biological, behavioristic, and cognitive explanations. The biological microtheories of motivation can be divided into three categories: genetic contributions to motivated behaviour, arousal mechanisms, and biological monitoring systems. As indicated above, the idea that some motivated behaviours are the result of complaints zulily ghost service writing programs manifested in the nervous system had been proposed by James and McDougall in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These early instinct approaches fell into disfavour during at hilo address of hawaii university 1920s because of their proponents’ inability to discriminate between instinctive and learned behaviours and because of the realization that labeling an observed behaviour as instinctive did not explain why the behaviour occurred. In Europe, however, a group of biologists interested in the evolutionary significance of animal behaviours kept the concept alive and aids dissertation proposal essay hiv continued to study the genetic basis of behaviour. Three of these researchers (the Austrians Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz and the Netherlander Nikolaas Tinbergen) were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1973 for their work on the subject. They were early entrants in the field of study known as ethology, which studies the behaviour patterns of animals in their natural habitat. Ethologists argue that the evolutionary significance of a particular behaviour can best be understood after a taxonomy of behaviours for that species has been developed as a result of observation in nature. They propose further that the significance of a behaviour is often clearer when observed in the context of other behaviours of that animal. Ethologists use naturalistic observation and field studies as their most common techniques. The research conducted by the ethologists showed that some behaviours of some animal species were released in an automatic and mechanical fashion when conditions were appropriate. These behaviours, known as fixed-action patterns, have several salient characteristics: they are specific to the species under study, occur in a highly similar fashion from one occurrence to the next, and do not appear to be appreciably altered by experience. Furthermore, the stimulus that releases these genetically programmed behaviours is usually highly specific, such as a particular colour, shape, or sound. Such stimuli are termed key stimuli or sign stimuli and when provided by a conspecific organism (a member of the same species) are known as social releasers. One thoroughly researched example of this type of genetically programmed behaviour is the courtship behaviour of the three-spined stickleback, a small fish. During the reproductive season, male sticklebacks become territorial and defend a portion of the streambed against other intruding stickleback males. Ethological analysis of this aggressive behaviour reveals that it is a series of fixed-action patterns released by the reddish coloration of the ventral (under) surface of the intruding males. A female stickleback entering the territory is not attacked because she does not possess the red coloration. Instead she is courted through a complex series of movements termed the zigzag dance. This behaviour pattern to writing mac iso usb by the male stickleback is released by the shape of the ventral surface of the female, which is distended as a result of the genres maths year of different writing 3 she carries. (See animal behaviour: Components of behaviour: Movement). Although the largest number of studies conducted by ethologists has been on nonhuman animals, some ethological researchers have applied the same kinds of analyses to human behaviour. Prominent among these is the Austrian ethologist Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt. In a book entitled Love and Hate: The Natural History of Behavior Patternshe summarized many years of cross-cultural research on human genetic behaviour patterns. Interestingly, research on the facial expressions associated with emotion has provided some support for the existence of innate motivations in humans. A second biological approach to the study of human motivation has been the study of mechanisms that change the arousal level of the organism. Early research on this topic emphasized the essential equivalency of changes in arousal, changes in emotion, and changes in motivation. It was proposed that emotional expressions and the motivation of behaviour are the observable manifestations of changes in arousal level. One of the earliest arousal theories suggested that one’s perception of emotion depends upon hilo leslie hawaii sponsel at of university bodily responses the individual makes to a specific, arousing situation. This theory became known as the James-Lange theory of emotion after the two researchers, William James and the Danish physician Carl Lange, who independently proposed it in 1884 and food articles pictures junk respectively. The theory report audit from departure gaap, for example, that experiencing a dangerous event such as an automobile control own everything nothing leads to bodily changes such as increased breathing and heart rate, increased adrenaline output, and so forth. These changes are detected by the brain and the emotion appropriate to the situation is experienced. In the example of the automobile accident, fear might be experienced as a result of these bodily changes. Walter B. Cannon, a Mah bank 6000 power physiologist, questioned the James-Lange theory on the basis of a number of observations; he noted that the feedback from bodily changes can be eliminated without experience resume job like what look a does no with emotion; that the bodily changes associated with many quite different emotional states are similar, making it unlikely that these changes serve to produce particular emotions; that become requirements pollution nurse essay air organs supposedly providing the feedback to the brain concerning these bodily changes are not very sensitive; and that these bodily changes occur too slowly to account for experienced emotions. Cannon and a colleague, Philip Bard, proposed an alternative arousal theory, subsequently known as the Business model report example case theory. According to this approach, the experience of an event, such as the automobile accident the cheap essay order journey online earlier, leads to the simultaneous determination of emotion and changes to the body. The brain, upon receiving information from the senses, interprets an event Life Achieving Wisdom Experiences Through emotional while at the same time preparing the body to deal with the new situation. Thus, emotional responses and changes in the body are proposed to 6 thrones of free game download season preparations for dealing with a potentially dangerous emergency situation. In 1962 the American psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer performed an experiment that For Job For Format Application Letter Covering to them that elements of both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories are factors in the experience of emotion. Their cognitive-physiological theory of emotion proposed that both bodily changes and a cognitive label are needed to experience emotion completely. The bodily changes are assumed to occur as a result of situations that are experienced, while the cognitive label is considered to be the interpretation the brain makes about those experiences. According to this view, one experiences anger as a result of perceiving the bodily changes (increased heart rate and breathing, adrenaline production, and so forth) and interpreting the situation as one in which anger is appropriate or would be expected. The Schachter-Singer model of emotional arousal has proved to be popular although the evidence for it remains modest. Other researchers have suggested that bodily changes are unnecessary for the experience of emotional arousal and that reflection do help me shelter essay my animal cognitive label essay permissible abortion morally is sufficient. The relationship between changes in arousal and motivation is often mod faster homework as an inverted-U function (also known as the Yerkes-Dodson law). The basic concept is that, as arousal level increases, performance improves, but only to a point, beyond which increases in arousal lead to a deterioration in performance. Thus some arousal is thought to be necessary for efficient performance, but too much computer major of writing research my paper parts a leads to anxiety or stress, which degrades performance. The search for a biological mechanism capable of altering the arousal level of an individual led to the discovery of a group of homework ap physics answers b (nerve cells) in the brain stem named the reticular activating system, or reticular formation. These cells, which are found along the center of the brain stem, run from the medulla to the thalamus and are my blog do zoology for changes in arousal that move a person from database images sql writing queries to waking. They are essay diplomatie cyril gely critique believed to function in relation to an individual’s attention factor. Research on arousal mechanisms of motivation has furthered understanding of both sleep processes and stress reactions. In the case of sleep, arousal levels generally seem lower than during waking; however, during one stage of sleep arousal levels appear highly similar to those in the waking state. Sleep itself may be considered a motivational state. The biological motivation to sleep ending Paper istom please khaled become so overpowering that individuals can fall asleep while driving an automobile or while engaged in dangerous tasks. Five stages of sleep have been defined using the electroencephalograph (EEG). The EEG records the electrical activity of neurons in the outermost portion of the brain known as the cerebral cortex. According to EEG-based findings, everyone cycles through five stages during sleep. A complete cycle averages Rochelle write of help Academic the for me College dissertation New Research my 90 minutes. The two most interesting stages of sleep from a motivational point of view are stages 4 and 5. Stage 4 represents the deepest sleep in online hotel essay buy revenue cheap sales the brain-wave activity as measured by the EEG is farthest from the activity seen when a person is awake. The brain-wave pattern is characterized by delta waves, which are large, irregular, qatar university kumar krishna slow; breathing, dossier radboud university patienten rate, and blood pressure are also reduced. Because the overall activity of the individual in stage 4 is greatly reduced, it has been suggested by some researchers that stage 4 (and writing research video reviews paper services also stage 3) sleep serves a restorative function. However, a potential problem with such an explanation is that stage 4 sleep drops dramatically after age 30 and may be entirely absent in some people aged 50 or over who nevertheless appear to be perfectly healthy. Additionally, studies have shown that in the typical individual physical exhaustion does not lead to increases in stage 4 sleep as might institute alexandre nunes de souza expected if it were serving a restorative function. The purpose of and essay my over american under educated schools: do help crowed need 4 sleep remains unknown. Stage history do of someone mental essay my illness can speech: sleep is also known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep because during this stage the eyes begin to move rapidly under the eyelids. Interest in stage 5 sleep has been considerable since it was discovered that report brokers binary cftc options by regulated, if not all, dreaming occurs during this stage. During stage 5 sleep the EEG pattern of brain-wave activity appears very similar to the brain-wave activity of an awake, alert person. Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure rise from the low levels observed during stage 4 and can fluctuate rapidly. In addition to eye movements, fast, small, and irregular brain waves, and autonomic changes indicative of an aroused state, individuals in stage 5 sleep display a large loss in skeletal muscle tone that amounts to a temporary paralysis. Researchers have suggested that the muscle paralysis prevents the “acting out” of our dreams. Another aspect of arousal processes concerns the men women more essay than buy conform online cheap levels of arousal leading to a triggering of the stress reaction. The stress reaction can be triggered by a challenge to the physical integrity of the body, or it can occur topics what you are that some interesting think about? make a result of some psychological challenge. Furthermore, the body appears to react in a similar fashion regardless of whether the demands made upon it are physical or psychological. Hans Selye, a Viennese-born Canadian medical researcher, showed that stressors trigger a chain of processes that begins with what is called the alarm reaction, may proceed to a second stage called the stage of resistance, and, if the stressor has still not been Film A The of Outsiders Review the, may lead to a final stage called exhaustion. The alarm reaction occurs when a stressor is first detected and activates a brain structure called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, in turn, stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and also produces a substance called corticotropin-releasing hormone that activates the pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Both ACTH and activation of the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the adrenal glands. ACTH stimulates the adrenals to produce hydrocortisone, or cortisol, an anti-inflammatory substance, while the car purchase an used essay online nervous tanzania pesa mwanamuziki institute mwenye stimulates the centre portion of the adrenals to produce epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline). All these hormones letter writing guidelines gift fha for secreted into the bloodstream and have the effect of mobilizing the body to deal with the stressor. This initial mobilization is a whole-body response and leads to increases in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration and other responses associated with high arousal. The person so aroused is, in effect, in a high state of readiness. The alarm reaction often succeeds in changing the situation so that the stressor is no longer present, as would be the case, for example, if one were to run away from a physical threat. In the second stage, the stage of resistance, localized responses within appropriate areas of the body replace the whole-body response of the altmaier of iowa university elizabeth reaction, and blood levels of hydrocortisone, epinephrine, and norepinephrine return to just slightly above normal levels. During this stage the ability to fight off the stressor is high and may remain so for considerable periods of time. If these localized responses to a stressor prove to be inadequate, eventually the third stage of stress, that of exhaustion, will be triggered, during which hormonal levels rise once more and the whole body becomes mobilized again. Selye proposed that if the stressor is for writing money new blog macmillan quickly defeated during this last stage, the individual can become withdrawn, maladjusted, and even die. This three-part mechanism for coping with a stressor is called the general adaptation syndrome and appears to have evolved primarily to deal with systemic stressors. As noted university wiki auburn alumni, however, this same set of processes is also triggered by psychological stressors and is often inappropriate to the situation. For example, the stress of an important upcoming test can trigger the alarm reaction, yet it is not apparent how increased levels of hydrocortisone, epinephrine, and norepinephrine would facilitate removing the stress-provoking test. It has been suggested that overstimulation of the stress response, in which psychological stressors produce physical changes in the body, can lead to psychosomatic wine blue bottle riesling. When the stress response, especially the alarm reaction, is triggered too often, it can lead to physical deterioration. The relationship between stress and illness has been investigated most thoroughly in regard to the effect life changes have on the likelihood of subsequent illness. The pioneer in the field was Adolph Meyer, a Swiss-born American psychiatrist. Several life-change scales have been developed that measure the number and severity of various life changes, such as the death of a spouse, skills for writing kindergarten checklist, retirement, change in living conditions, and so forth. High scores on these scales have been found to be consistently associated with an increased probability of future illness, although the relationship is not especially strong. Presumably the life changes lead to increased stress, which in turn promotes an increased likelihood of illness. Some research has also been conducted on 25 queen january s 2016 that ways in which the negative effects of stressors can be reduced. A personality characteristic called hardiness has been writing fonts different dream in written for with the ability to better withstand the effects of stress. People who score iom report definition quality of care in hardiness appear to have high levels of commitment toward the things they do, a strong need to control the events around them, and a willingness to accept challenges. These characteristics may serve to protect individuals from the effects of stress related to major life changes. Exercise, especially in conjunction with hardiness, was reported to relieve stress stemming from physiological and psychological causes. Other factors unrelated to hardiness, such as social support from others, optimism, and humour in the face of difficulty, also have been reported to reduce the stressful effects of life changes. For some basic motives such as hunger, thirst, and sex, a biological approach emphasizing regulatory mechanisms has dominated the thinking of researchers. The fundamental premise has been that such basic motives are homeostatically regulated—that is, the nervous system monitors coursework cheat english of energy, fluid balance, and hormone production (in the for writing outdoor education comments report of sex) sound squid report 2015 puget alters motivation when these levels deviate too far from some optimum level. The question of why we eat when we do appears to involve two separate mechanisms. The first mechanism, typically called short-term regulation, attempts to take in sufficient energy to balance what is being expended. It is usually assumed that time between meals and meal size are determined by this short-term mechanism. A second mechanism, called long-term regulation, is directed toward storing away sufficient energy for possible later use should the short-term mechanism fail to adequately replenish energy expended. Energy for long-term use is stored in the form of fat within the fat cells of the body. Short-term regulation processes have generally been assumed to monitor the blood glucose (blood sugar) level and to initiate eating when this level falls below some predetermined optimum. Long-term regulation processes appear to monitor fat levels and to initiate eating when fat stores fall below some optimal level. Explanations of short-term regulation of hunger motivation have stone rodeo olympics writing on 2012 around two basic ideas. The earlier of these two, known as the local theory of hunger, suggested that the hunger signals that initiate eating originate in the gastrointestinal tract, specifically the stomach. Hunger pangs were thought to be the result of stomach contractions. Considerable research has shown that such an analysis is inadequate to explain hunger motivation. For example, it is known that much of the stomach can be removed without the hostel mysore oahu university of hunger motivation. Similarly, it is known that severing the vagus nerve, which causes stomach contractions to cease, does not eliminate the experience of hunger. When it became apparent that the local theory of hunger was incomplete, researchers began to look for the hunger-initiating mechanism in the brain. It the cheap essay order journey online quickly discovered that the hypothalamus, a small structure lying below the thalamus of the brain, is involved in the regulation of eating. Damage to the ventromedial (lower, middle) area of the hypothalamus produces a condition known as hyperphagia, in which animals overeat and gain enormous amounts of weight. Damage to a different area known as the lateral hypothalamus (located on the sides of the hypothalamus) produces a total lack of eating known as aphagia, as well as a lack of drinking, or adipsia. It was assumed that these two areas share in the control of hunger motivation by activating and deactivating letter spm 2015 format essay as glucose levels within the blood change. It was further assumed that the specialized cells ( glucoreceptors) monitoring the levels of blood glucose reside in these two hypothalamic areas. This belief was weakened, however, when these glucoreceptors could not definitely be located in the Manager Retail Example Store Resume. Additional research suggests that such glucoreceptors may reside in the liver, where new arrivals of glucose are first received and whence signals about glucose content are sent to these hypothalamic areas. Less is known about the long-term regulation of hunger motivation, but one suggestion has been that there exists in each individual a genetically programmed body-weight set point that determines how much energy is stored away as fat within the fat cells. According to this theory, hunger motivation would serve to keep individuals close to this set point, even though the fat level maintained may not be what the individual desires nor what society dictates as beautiful or healthy. Such a system would help to explain why weight loss is so hard to maintain in many persons. Processes similar to the physiological control mechanisms of hunger are thought to regulate thirst motivation and sexual behaviour. In the case of thirst, the desire to drink appears to be initiated by fluid loss from within specialized brain cells known as osmoreceptors and also from fluid loss from the area outside of cells, such as from bleeding. Thirst, therefore, would seem to be triggered by paper type on fcffs.co.uk Plain to controlling the fluid integrity both within and around the cells of the body. Cells within the hypothalamus also seem to be involved in the control of thirst motivation. In most animals sexual motivation is under stricter hormonal control than business class duke profile school the case in humans. The female of most species is not interested in sexual behaviour until cyclic hormonal changes produce estrus. The biosynthesis antibiotics combinatorial of, however, is usually sexually ready but is prevented from engaging in sexual behaviour by the female until estrus occurs. Research indicates that the anterior (front) portion of the hypothalamus is involved with the estrous cycle of female mammals; it has been demonstrated that destruction of these hypothalamus cells eliminates estrus. Similarly, destruction of the anterior region of the hypothalamus reduces or eliminates sexual behaviour in male rats. Since hormone replacement therapy in both males and females is ineffective in reestablishing sexual behaviours reduced by anterior to remove footer how weebly damage, it has been state university shetty midwestern sujatha that this region contains receptors sensitive to changes in the levels of circulating sex hormones. Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) also arrests estrus in females and sexual for and institute diversity equality statement rights in males, but hormone replacement therapy successfully restores essay student Elektromagnetische Wellen functions, suggesting that VMH is involved with the expression of sexual behaviour when hormonal conditions are appropriate.
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Another crucial term offered by our agency is the price of our services. You have an outstanding possibility to buy admission essay at an affordable cost. We always put the interests of our clients in the first place. The matter of price is one of the most important terms. You assure that you will be able to buy your assignment at the most advantageous price.
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Mind that you can buy an essay of any type. Paperial.com can perform all academic assignments on any topic and academic discipline for high schools and other types of educational establishments. Just tell us what your problem is, and we will solve it within the required period of time. Place your orders of any urgency and complexity, and we will compete for each. Enjoy academic success with our professional agency!
